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Isaac Newton, in full Sir Isaac Newton, (born December 25, 1642 [January 4, 1643, New Style], Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire, England—died March 20 [March 31], 1727, London), English physicist and mathematician, who was the culminating figure of the Scientific Revolution of the 17th century. In optics, his discovery of the composition of white light integrated the phenomena of colours into the science of light and laid the foundation for modern physical optics. In mechanics, his three laws of motion, the basic principles of modern physics, resulted in the formulation of the law of universal gravitation. In mathematics, he was the original discoverer of the infinitesimal calculus. Newton’s Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, 1687) was one of the most important single works in the history of modern science.

In the Principia, Newton formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation that formed the dominant scientific viewpoint for centuries until it was superseded by the theory of relativity. Newton used his mathematical description of gravity to derive Kepler's laws of planetary motion, account for tides, the trajectories of comets, the precession of the equinoxes and other phenomena, eradicating doubt about the Solar System's heliocentricity. He demonstrated that the motion of objects on Earth and celestial bodies could be accounted for by the same principles. Newton's inference that the Earth is an oblate spheroid was later confirmed by the geodetic measurements of Maupertuis, La Condamine, and others, convincing most European scientists of the superiority of Newtonian mechanics over earlier systems.

Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope and developed a sophisticated theory of colour based on the observation that a prism separates white light into the colours of the visible spectrum. His work on light was collected in his highly influential book Opticks, published in 1704. He also formulated an empirical law of cooling, made the first theoretical calculation of the speed of sound, and introduced the notion of a Newtonian fluid. In addition to his work on calculus, as a mathematician Newton contributed to the study of power series, generalised the binomial theorem to non-integer exponents, developed a method for approximating the roots of a function, and classified most of the cubic plane curves.

Newton was a fellow of Trinity College and the second Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge. He was a devout but unorthodox Christian who privately rejected the doctrine of the Trinity. He refused to take holy orders in the Church of England, unlike most members of the Cambridge faculty of the day. Beyond his work on the mathematical sciences, Newton dedicated much of his time to the study of alchemy and biblical chronology, but most of his work in those areas remained unpublished until long after his death. Politically and personally tied to the Whig party, Newton served two brief terms as Member of Parliament for the University of Cambridge, in 1689–1690 and 1701–1702.

The Study of Gravity In 1679, Newton referred to Kepler's laws of planetary motion and returned to his work on celestial mechanics considering the gravity and its influence on planetary orbits. After this, Hooker corresponded briefly with Hook between 1679 and 1680. Hook was appointed to administer the Royal Society letter and opened a letter intended to obtain Newton's contribution to the Royal Society transaction. In the winter of 1680 to 1681, the appearance of a comet further stimulated Newton's astronomical interest, and he contacted John Flamsteed about this. After communicating with Hooke, Newton showed that the elliptical shape of the planet's orbit is produced by a centripetal force that is inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector. Newton reported his results to Edmund Halley and the Royal Society in De motu corporum in gyrum. It is a pamphlet written on about nine sheets of paper and copied to the Royal Society in December 1684. This package contains the nucleus that Newton developed and expanded to form the principle. With the encouragement and financial assistance of Edmund Halley, the Principles were published on July 5, 1687. In this work, Newton established three general laws of motion. These laws collectively describe the relationship between any object, the force acting on it, and the resulting motion, and laid the foundation for classical mechanics. They contributed to many breakthroughs during the industrial revolution that followed, and they have not been improved for more than 200 years. Many of these advancements are still the basis of non-relativistic technologies in the modern world. He used the Latin word gravitas to denote the effect that came to be known as gravity and defined the law of universal gravitation.